HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF FLOODING MENACE IN YAKURR LGA OF CROSS RIVER STATE NIGERIA

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study: Flooding is one of the most common and devastating natural disasters, affecting millions of people globally each year. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that over 90% of natural disaster-related deaths occur in low- and middle- income countries, where flood are prevalent (WHO, 2014). Flooding typically results from heavy rainfall, river overflow, storm surges, or inadequate drainage systems, and its impact is often compounded by deforestation, urbanization, and poor land-use practices. In many developing countries, including Nigeria, the increasing frequency and severity of flooding events are closely linked to climate change, which has caused significant disruptions in weather patterns and increased the intensity of storms and rainfall. In Nigeria, flooding has become a recurring environmental challenge, particularly during the rainy season. Several states in the country, including Cross River, have been severely affected by annual floods, with far-reaching consequences on health, livelihoods, infrastructure, and the environment. According to the Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NIMET), the frequency of flood incidents in Nigeria has risen significantly over the past decade, affecting millions of people and causing widespread destruction to homes, farmlands, and public infrastructure (Aderogba, 2015). Similarly in Benue state one of the many regions in Nigeria highly vulnerable to flooding. The area experiences an annual pattern of heavy rainfall, coupled with inadequate drainage systems and poor urban planning, which exacerbates the flooding problem. As a result, several communities in some regions in Benue state, particularly those situated along riverbanks and low-lying areas, face frequent flooding during the rainy season. The environmental and health consequences of this recurring menace are significant. Floodwaters often lead to contamination of water sources, creating an ideal environment for the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever. Moreover, stagnant water left behind after floods provides breeding grounds for mosquitoes, which significantly increases the incidence of insect-borne diseases like malaria (Adeoye et al., 2014). In 2012, Nigeria experienced one of its worst flooding events in history, leading to the displacement of about two million people, thousands of injuries, and hundreds of deaths (Ologunorisa & Adeyemo, 2014). Although national and local governments have implemented flood management strategies, these measures have not been fully effective in mitigating the recurrent impacts of flooding, especially in rural areas. The public health burden resulting from these flood-related diseases is enormous, as local healthcare systems are often overwhelmed during the flood season. Additionally, poor sanitation practices, limited access to clean water, and the displacement of communities during floods contribute to worsening health outcomes. Vulnerable groups, such as children, the elderly, and pregnant women, are particularly at risk of severe health complications during floods due to their reduced immunity and limited access to medical care. Environmentally, flooding leads to the erosion of topsoil, destruction of farmlands, and damage to ecosystems. In Benue state, where agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for many residents, flood-induced environmental degradation severely affects food security and economic stability. The destruction of crops and livestock during floods results in significant financial losses for farmers, while the contamination of water bodies adversely affects fishing activities, which are also a critical source of livelihood for some residents Furthermore, flooding also has long-term environmental implications, such as the loss of biodiversity and degradation of natural habitats. In Calabar South LGA, the recurring flooding events have led to the displacement of wildlife and the destruction of natural vegetation, contributing to habitat loss and a decline in biodiversity. The interplay between these environmental and health challenges creates a cycle of vulnerability, where residents are continually exposed to health risks and environmental degradation due to recurring floods. Despite these challenges, there is a lack of adequate research focused on understanding the specific health and environmental implications of flooding in Yakurr LGA. Most existing studies on flooding in Nigeria have focused on urban areas or large-scale events, with little attention given to rural areas like Yakurr, which are equally, if not more, vulnerable to flood-related disasters. This study seeks to fill this gap by exploring the health and environmental consequences of flooding in Yakurr LGA, with the goal of providing data that can inform public health interventions and environmental management practices in the area. 1.2 Statement of the problem Flooding in Yakurr LGA is a recurring issue with profound health and environmental consequences. The region has experienced increased incidences of insect-borne and waterborne diseases, leading to significant public health challenges. Many households are forced to relocate, while others contend with contaminated water sources and poor sanitation during flood seasons. Despite these challenges, there is a gap in research focused on the specific health impacts of flooding in this area. This study aims to address that gap by exploring how flooding affects the health of residents and identifying ways to mitigate these effects 1.3 Significance of the study The study holds significance in several ways: It will provide essential data on the health and environmental implications of flooding in Yakurr LGA, contributing to the existing body of literature on flood- related public health challenges. The findings will help local health and envir Zonmental agencies develop targeted interventions to reduce the incidence of flood-related diseases. Policymakers at the state and local levels can use the recommendations from this study to improve flood management practices and enhance public health initiatives. 1.4 Justification of the study Yakurr LGA is prone to annual flooding, yet there is limited data on its direct health impacts. This study is justified by the need to provide empirical evidence on the relationship between flooding and health outcomes in the area. By focusing on disease incidence, environmental health, and sanitation issues linked to flooding, the study will inform public health strategies aimed at reducing the risks posed by floods 1.5 Broad objectives The broad objective of this study is to examine the health and environmental implications of flooding in Yakurr LGA, with a focus on its impact on disease prevalence and overall community well-being. 1.6 Specific Objectives Specifically the study seek; To examine effect of flooding and incidence of insect borne diseases in Yakurr Local Government Area. To assess effect of flooding and occurrence of water borne diseases in Yakurr Local Government Area. To assess the Environmental health impact of flooding on the aesthetics of Yakurr Local Government Area. 1.7 Research questions Does flooding influence the incidence of insect-borne diseases in Yakurr LGA? Is there any relationship between flooding and the occurrence of waterborne diseases Yakurr LGA? Is there any relationship between flooding and the aesthetics condition of the Environment in Yakurr LGA? 4.8 Research hypothesis There is no significant relationship between flooding and the incidence of insect- Borne diseases in Yakurr LGA. There is no significant relationship between flooding and the prevalence of waterborne diseases in Yakurr LGA. There is no relationship between flooding and the aesthetic condition of the environment in Yakurr LGA. 1.8 Scope of the study This study focuses on the health and environmental implications of flooding in Yakurr LGA of Cross River State, Nigeria. The study will specifically examine the effects of flooding on the incidence of insect-borne and waterborne diseases, as well the overall health of the residents. Data will be collected from local health situations, environmental agencies, and residents of the LGA to provide a comprehensive understanding of the flooding menace. 1.9 Operational definition of terms The overflow of water onto normally dry land, often due to heavy rainfall Flooding:, poor drainage, or rising water levels in rivers and lakes, which leads to property damage, displacement, and environmental degradation. Environmental Implications: The impact of an event or activity (in this case, Hooding) on the natural environment, including soil erosion, deforestation, and water contamination, which can lead to long-term ecological damage. Health Implications: The effects of environmental factors such as flooding on the physical and mental health of individuals and communities, often seen in the spread of diseases, injuries, and psychological stress. Insect-borne Diseases: Illnesses transmitted by insects, particularly mosquitoes, which proliferate in standing water left behind after floods. Common diseases include malaria and dengue fever. Waterborne Diseases: Infections caused by ingesting or coming into contact with contaminated water, often following floods, including cholera, typhoid, and dysentery. Yakurr Local Government Area (LGA): A region in Cross River State, Nigeria, prone to frequent flooding due to its geographical location, characterized by low- dying areas and a tropical climate with heavy seasonal rainfall. Malaria: A life-threatening insect-borne disease caused by Plasmodium parasites transmitted to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes, often more prevalent after flooding events due to stagnant water. Cholera: A waterborne disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholera, often spread through contaminated water sources during floods, leading to severe dehydration and diarrhea. Displacement: The forced relocation of individuals or communities due to flooding, which can lead to overcrowding in temporary shelters and exacerbate the spread of diseases. Sanitation: The maintenance of hygienic conditions, such as clean water and waste disposal systems, which are often compromised during floods, increasing the risk of disease transmission. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction The chapter review literature related to the study, For clarity, the review is done the following sub-headings; 2.1 Theoretical/conceptual framework 2.2 Flooding and Incidence of Insect borne diseases 2.3 Flooding and prevalence of waterborne diseases 2.4 Flooding and the aesthetic condition of the environment 2.5 Summary of Literature review 2.1 Theoretical/ conceptual framework This study is anchored on the Environmental Determinism Theory, propounded by Friedrich Ratzel in 1897. The theory posits that the physical environment, particularly climate and geography, has a strong influence on the behavior and health outcomes of human populations. According to Ratzel, human activities and societal development are largely shaped by environmental conditions, implying that adverse conditions like flooding can significantly impact public health and urban aesthetics. Applying this theory to the current study, it becomes evident that flooding, as a major environmental event, determines the prevalence of both insect-borne and waterborne diseases due to its capacity to alter living conditions and sanitation standards. Furthermore, the aesthetic degradation of the environment following floods aligns with the theory's assertion that environmental factors influence social and behavioral responses. Therefore, understanding flooding through the lens of environmental determinism allows for a holistic approach to mitigating its impacts through urban planning, public health interventions, and environmental management. 2.2 Flooding and Incidence of Insect borne Diseases Flooding, like other natural disasters, can significantly impact health, society, ecology, and culture. In Nigeria, flooding contributes to the transmission of various infectious diseases, exacerbated by limited access to clean water and sanitation. This Situation heightens the prevalence of water-borne diseases, such as cholera and diarrhea, which can lead to severe consequences, particularly for children under five wears old (Olanrewaju, 2019). Flood waters are often contaminated with over a hundred different pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites, increasing the risk of disease spread when individuals come into contact with them during drinking or food preparation (Sharifi, 2019). The transmission of insect-borne diseases following flooding is complex, involving interactions among environmental and social determinants that influence the survival and spread of pathogens and vector species like mosquitoes (Parham, 2015). Mosquitoes require aquatic environments for their immature stages, making flooded areas suitable breeding grounds (Foster & Walker, 2019). Factors such as rainfall, humidity, and temperature affect the mosquitoes' habitats, survival rates, and feeding behaviors, and they also influence the temporal and geographic spread of diseases (Morin, 2013). Research indicates that climate change, with associated shifts in temperature and rainfall, may alter disease distribution patterns, yet non- linear impacts like extreme rainfall can disrupt mosquito breeding sites by washing out habitats (Benedum, 2018). Vectorial capacity, a measure quantifying disease transmission risk, includes parameters such as mosquito density, biting rate, survival, and vector competence. Flooding can impact these parameters in different ways. For example, floodwaters may create stagnant pools conducive to mosquito breeding, but the flushing effect of extreme rainfall could reduce mosquito populations in some cases. Furthermore, the relationship between flooding and mosquito density is influenced by factors like climate, water salinity, water storage practices, and local mosquito species, which may or may not thrive in post-flood conditions (Kengne, 2019). Mosquito survival and the duration of the extrinsic incubation period critical for pathogen transmission are also affected by post-flood humidity. High humidity can enhance mosquito survival, particularly at high temperatures (Schmidt, 2018). However, some mosquitoes may not survive intense rainfall, depending on their exposure. Vector competence, or the ability of a mosquito to transmit a pathogen, generally remains stable, yet flooding may shift the mosquito species composition in favor of more or less competent vectors, thus influencing disease risk. In sum, the relationship between flooding and insect-borne disease transmission is intricate, shaped by both immediate and longer-term environmental changes, local species characteristics, and human interventions. These dynamics highlight the need for region-specific research and adaptation strategies to mitigate health risks following flood events. 2.3 Flooding and Prevalence of Waterborne Diseases Floods are the most common type of natural disasters, and can have devastating impacts on over two billion people around the world (WHO, 2022). According to the International Disaster Database (EM-DAT), floods affected more people globally and caused more damage than any other type of natural disaster in the 21st century (CRED, 2018). Moreover, 95% of people living in Asia would be affected, on large and varied landmasses including multiple river basins, floodplains, and other high-risk zones of natural hazards, as well as the high-density populations in Disaster-prone areas. It was also reported that there have been tremendous economic tosses worldwide for low-, middle-, and high-income countries due to flood damages. Flood magnitude and frequency in various locations are expected to increase over time as a result of uncontrolled development and climate change Guha-Sapir, 2019). Flood risk in Malaysia has increased distressingly in recent decades. Malaysia is one of the Asian countries predisposed to flood risk, with approximately 33,298 km² of the land area of Malaysia vulnerable to flood disasters and at least 4.7 million people affected by flooding annually (Department of Irrigation and Drainage [DID], 2020). It was estimated that 85 out of 189 river basins were prone to recurring flooding. The main consequences of the occurrence of flooding in Malaysia are due to the nature of physical topography and drainage, as well as the combination of meteorological, hydrological, and socio-economic factors (Shah, 2017). The flood losses and damages can be extremely high, but historically disastrous flood events caused by rapid development and environmental degradation are often quickly forgotten (Omran, 2018). An unpredictable massive flood disaster is generally associated with an increased risk of waterborne infectious diseases due to the direct impact of floodwater. Outbreaks of waterborne infections, such as cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, leptospirosis, E. coli, and hepatitis A, have reportedly increased in highly vulnerable populations in flooded areas (O'Dwyer, 2016). Nevertheless, the risk was low unless significant factors such as population displacement, unsafe drinking water, food scarcity, lack of accessibility to basic healthcare services, and low immunity level to vaccine-preventable diseases were present (WHO, 2020). Furthermore, waterborne disease outbreaks have been linked to floods, and caused by the consumption of contaminated drinking water after heavy rain (WHO, 2020). Detection of waterborne pathogens plays a crucial role in monitoring water safety and sanitation, hence reducing threats that lead to contamination of water sources (Deshmukh, 2016). Many studies have been conducted to better understand the microbial waterborne pathogens and diseases associated with flooding, but there is currently no unified approach to collecting and analysing a water sample for all pathogenic microorganisms (Dowling, 2016). Although a number of different methods, including conventional culture-based and molecular methods, have been used for enumeration and detection of bacteria from environmental sources, several limitations and disadvantages remain, thereby creating a challenge in the environmental microbiology field, and particularly related to floods. As floods are associated with an increased potential health risk of infection, the methodological issues associated with the enumeration and detection of microbial viability in floodwater, as well as the understanding of the synergistic linkage between floods and waterborne diseases, remain a major gap. Therefore, this study aims to address this issue by evaluating the flood risk patterns and the plausible application of flow cytometry (FCM) as an assessment method to understand the linkage between flood events and waterborne bacterial diseases. This study is the first environmental study related to flooding that was conducted in Malaysia to improve the surveillance of waterborne infectious diseases, thus minimizing the impacts of flood events on public health issues. 2.4 Flooding and the Aesthetic Condition of the Environment Problems of environmental degradation and protection have been a major concern in Nigeria over the past few decades (Owusu-Ansah, 2011). Aesthetic aspects of the natural environment are continually being degraded through flooding activities Kehinde & Adeyemo, 2018). Nevertheless, natural forces affect the natural environment by modifying, altering, or destroying the conditions of nature Nwankwoala, 2015). The resultant effects leave the environment aesthetically unpleasant. A large part of why environmental degradation is so serious a problem is because it involves the destruction of things of substantial aesthetic value (Adeola, 2020). Urban aesthetic is an essential component of the urban realm, circumscribed by the prevailing contemporary reality (Agbola, 2019). Urban aesthetic is the assemblage of structures that form an interrelated whole, the city, fostering an understanding of quantitative approaches and qualitative analyses that aspire to determine the value of visual and non-visual aesthetic characteristics (Fayomi, 2017). Urban aesthetic includes smells, noises, taste, sights, as well as the unseen history of a place. Components of urban aesthetics include clean air, clean water, land, and the physical, natural, and artificial entities of the environment (Ogunba & Agboola, 2016). On the other hand, environmental aesthetics has been a major area of study since the latter half of the twentieth century. Its significant subjects include understanding the aesthetics of the universe and the world, which encompass more than mere objects and phenomena (Adekunle, 2015). Environmental aesthetics broadens the aesthetic understanding of natural and human-made environments influenced by human presence (Ajibola & Adeleke, 2018). In this regard, analyzing environmental aesthetics characteristics of urban form has become more essential, especially given the rapid expansion of cities, the implementation of numerous projects in urban areas, and the dynamic transformations in city structures. Urban designers now face the responsibility of analyzing human-made environments and assessing the impacts of urban projects on citizens and the environment to achieve high standards in improving the quality of the human-made environment (Idowu & Ogundipe, 2021). 2. 5 Summary of Literature review Several studies have emphasized the significant relationship between flooding and the incidence of insect-borne diseases. Floodwaters often create stagnant pools, which serve as breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other vectors responsible for diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and chikungunya. Research conducted in tropical and subtropical regions indicates a surge in such diseases following flood events, with a notable increase in both morbidity and mortality rates. This trend is consistent across regions experiencing frequent or severe flooding, especially where public health systems are under-resourced. Similarly, the prevalence of waterborne diseases is widely documented in flood- prone areas. Flooding often leads to the contamination of drinking water supplies with pathogens such as E. coli, cholera, and typhoid bacteria. Scholars have pointed out that the collapse of sanitation infrastructure during floods exacerbates the spread of these illnesses, particularly in densely populated or low-income communities. The literature suggests that public health interventions during and after floods must prioritize access to clean water and adequate hygiene to mitigate these effects. The aesthetic condition of the environment is also affected by flooding, as it often results in the accumulation of debris, damaged vegetation, and disrupted landscapes. Literature in urban planning and environmental science highlights that such degradation not only affects visual appeal but can also influence mental well- being, tourism, and property values. The aftermath of flooding leaves many areas unsightly and functionally compromised, affecting how communities perceive and interact 14 with their environment. Researchers advocate for integrated flood management strategies that include ecological restoration and sustainable urban drainage systems. CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 1.0 Introduction This chapter presented the procedure used in this research work, in order to appropriately assess the topic under study. Therefore, emphasis was placed on the following: Study design, study setting, sample size and sampling Techniques, Instrument design, Method of Validating Instrument, Method of data collection, Ethical issues, Method of data Analysis and Limitation of the study. 3.1 Study design The study design used was descriptive survey. It was adopted because the purpose of the study is to gather information about the interrelation of the variables. Hence, the study employs questionnaire and direct observation in order to determine the opinion of the sample population and isolate the interrelation of the variables. 3.2 Study setting The study was carried out in Yakurr Local Government Area of Cross River State. Yakurr is situated in Central Senatorial District of Cross River State with a latitude 5.7973° longitude N, 8.1776° E. The communities that constitute Yakurr includes; Agoi Ekpo, Ugep, Ekori, Idomi, Mkpani, Nko and Agoi-Ebami, Assiga, Inyima Ekom Agoi. The Local Government Headquarters is situated at Ugep. The Local Government Area (Yakurr) is bounded in the north by Obubra LGA and Ikom, in the South by Biase, in the East by Abi Local Government Area in Cross River State. The migratory history of the Yakurr people, as given by Ubi (1986 and 1978) is that, between 1617 and 1677, the Yakurr migrated from that ancestral homeland to look for a new homeland following a military defeat from Akpa. About A.D. 1660, some Yakurr migrants founded new homelands in their present locations. These locations are Idomi and Ugep. Between 1677 and 1707, some other Yakurr migrants founded the towns of Ekori and Nko. Between 1707 and 1737 yet another wave of Yakurr migrants founded Mkpani settlement. The reasons for the relocation of populations in new settlements by the Yakurr is mainly due to competing demands for land resources, as a result of growing populations in one hand and unresolved conflicts in the other. This development is aided by the patrilocality of marriages and strong patriarchy in the family system. It as thus easy for patriclans to relocate to new settlements. This has produced a slight parallelism in names of patriclans and strong parallelism in names of matriclans in the Yakurr settlements. Yakurr is one of the largest tribe in West Africa, the tribe is under the control of paramount ruler. Its indigene speaks Lokaa Language traders while few others engage in Civil Services. Yakurr local government is under a the political leadership of electoral chairman. The people of Yakurr are very rich in Culture specifically the New Yam Festival which is an international festival in Cross River States. The people are very hospitable with a population of 250,000 inhabitants in the area. The community is under the control of the Obol-Lopon. The total ward in Yakurr is 13 political wards which includes; Inyima, Idomi, Abanapai, Assiga, Ajere, Ntan, Ikpakapit, Mkpani/ Agoi, Ijom- Ugep, Nkpolo/ Ukpawen, Ijiman, Afrekpe/ Epenti, Bikobiko. 3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Technique The sampling technique adopted in the study is simple random sampling. This method is adopted to allow for equal representation and broad generalization on thea subject matter. One hundred (100) respondents were selected from five (5) villages in Yakurr. The following steps were used in the sampling process. Table 3.3.1: Step 1; Villages Sampled from the Seven Village in Yakurr Systematic random sampling technique was employed in selecting the sampled communities. Random No Villages Sampled Village 1 Nko X 2 Ugep X 3 Ekori 4 Idomi X 5 Mkpani X 6 Agoi-Ebomi 7 Agoi- Ekpo X 8 Abami 9 Ekon Table 3.3.2: Step 2: Selected Villages for the Study Random No Villages 1 Nko 2 Ugep 3 Idomi 4 Nkpani 5 Agoi Ekpo 3.4 Instrument design The research instrument used for the study was the structured type of individual opinion questionnaire consisting of two parts, A and B. Part A provided information on personal data, while part B dealt with information relating to the study variables. It contained closed ended question which gave the respondents an opportunity to choose options that support their views about the variables under investigation. The questionnaire was designed in a simple and straight forward manner for ease of understanding by the target population. 3.5 Method of validating instrument Validity is the ability of instrument to measure what is intended to measure. Instrument was given to the research supervisor and an expert in research for vetting. At the end of the vetting, some of the items in the instrument were restructured and adjusted to fit the study. Those that were not relevant were deleted and replaced. The corrections and suggestion of the supervisor in collaboration with that of research expert help in modifying some items in the questionnaire to make it standard. The procedure ensured that the items in the questionnaire are accurate and relevant for the study. 3.6 Method of Data Collection Data were collected from 100 respondents using structured questionnaire. This was developed and distributed personally to 100 respondents selected from 5 villages in Yakurr LGA. The respondents were informed of the purpose of the study before the questionnaires were given to them for filling. The questionnaires were correctly filled and returned. At the end of the process, no questionnaire was lost and all respondents responded promptly and satisfactorily. This yield high rate of returns and also ensured that the questionnaires were correctly filled. 3.7 Method of Data Analysis Data collected through questionnaire were collated, presented in cross-tabulated tables and further analyzed using Chi-square (X²). The result was used to address the study hypotheses as well as form bases for discussion. 3.8 Limitations to the Study In the course of this study, the researcher passed through series of obstacles which include: lack of adequate finances, time constraints, and unwillingness of respondents to provide information, especially to unknown person. However, these obstacles were surmounted by the researcher due to hard work and perseverance. CHAPTER FOUR RESULT ANALYSIS 4.0 Introduction This chapter is concerned with the analysis and presentation of the earlier collected Mata. The analysis was done per each hypothesis and the result interpreted. 4.1 Presentation of Frequency Distribution Data collected on demographic variables of respondents were analyzed and presented in table 4.1 for easy understanding. Table 4.1 Distribution of respondents in terms of demographic variables Main Variable Sub-Variable Frequency Percentage Gender Male 40 40% Female 60 60% Total 100 100% Age 20 – 25 25 25% 26 – 30 36 36% 31 – 35 20 20% 36 above 19 19% Total 100 100% Occupation Student 25 25% Civil Servants 18 18% Farmers 45 45% Others 12 12% Total 100 100% Educational Qualification Primary 10 10% Secondary 20 20% Tertiary Institution 65 65% Non formal Education 5 5% Total 100 100% Source: Field survey, 2025 Data from table shows that, out of 100 respondents sampled, 40(40%) were male, while 60(60%) were female. It also indicated that out of 100 respondents, those with 20-25 are 25(25%), those within 26-30 were 36(36%), and those with 31-35 are (30%), while those within 36 above were 19 (19%). It was further noted that out of a total of 100 respondents, 25(25%) are students, 18(18%) were civil servants, 45(45%) were farmers, 12(12%) were engaged in other occupations. On the distribution of respondents based on educational qualification, those with primary education were 10(10%), those with secondary education were 20(20%), those with tertiary education were 65(65%), those within Non formal Education 5(5%). 4.2 Analysis and Result In this section, each of the hypotheses was analyzed in their null form using chi- square. The results were then presented and interpreted at 0.05 level of significance and I degree of freedom. Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship between flooding and the incidence of insect-borne diseases in Yakurr LGA. Table 2: Does flooding influence the incidence of insect-borne diseases in Yakurr LGA? Flooding Incidence of insect-borne Total Df X2 Cal X2 Tab High (O) (E) Low (O) (E) Good 11 (19.8) 66 1 High 19 (10.2) 34 1.8 3.84 Total 70 30 100 Source: Field survey, 2025 X2 calculated value- 1.8 X2 Tabulated value = 3.84 Degree of freedom = x²-(oi - ei)2 ei Result: Since the calculated X2 value of 16.41 is greater than the table X² value of 3,481, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is a significant relationship between flooding and the incidence of insect-borne diseases in Yakurr LGA. Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship between flooding and the prevalence of waterborne diseases in Yakurr LGA. Table 3: Is there any relationship between flooding and the occurrence of waterborne diseases in Yakurr LGA? Flooding Water borne disease Total Df X2 Cal X2 Tab High (O) (E) Low (O) (E) Good 15 (22.5) 15 (7.5) 30 High 60 (52.5) 10 (17.5) 70 1 14.27 3.84 Total 75 25 100 Source: Field survey, 2025 X2 calculated value = 14.27 X2 Tabulated value = 3.84 Degree of freedom - 1 x=(oi-ei)2 ei Result: Since the calculated X2 value of 15.4 is greater than the table X² tabulated value of 3.84, therefore we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is significant relationship between flooding and the prevalence of waterborne diseases in Yakurr LGA. Hypothesis 3: There is no relationship between flooding and the aesthetic condition of the environment in Yakurr LGA. Table 4: Is there any relationship between flooding and the aesthetics condition of the environment in Yakurr LGA? Flooding Aesthetics of environment Total Df X2 X Affected (O) (E) Affected (O) (E) Cal Tab Good 25 (30) 75 1 4.66 3.84 Poor 10 (15) 15 (10) 25 Total 60 40 100 Source: Field survey, 2025 X2 calculated value = 4.66 X2 Tabulated value = 3.84 Degree of freedom = 1 X2=(oi-ei)² ei Result: Since the calculated X2 value of 5.4 is greater than the table X2 tabulated value of 3.84, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is no relationship between flooding and the aesthetic condition of the environment in Yakurr LGA. CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.0 Introduction This chapter provides a critical discussion of the study results from where precision were made on the Health and Environmental Implications of Flooding Menace in Yakurr Local Government Area of Cross River State. 5.1 Discussion of findings This section focuses on discussion of findings of the study on Health and Environmental Implications of Flooding Menace in Yakurr. The result of research hypothesis one, which assesses the relationship between Flooding and the incidence of insect-borne diseases in Yakurr Local Government Area, concludes that there is a significant relationship between flooding and the incidence of insect-borne diseases. This finding aligns with the study of Adebayo and Uche (2020), who emphasized that stagnant floodwaters create breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other vectors, thereby increasing the prevalence of insect-borne diseases. Similarly, Musa et al. (2018) found that areas prone to frequent flooding experience a higher burden of malaria and dengue fever due to the proliferation of disease-carrying insects. These studies corroborate the current findings by demonstrating that flooding directly contributes to the transmission of insect-borne diseases in affected communities. The result of research hypothesis two, which examines the relationship between flooding and the prevalence of waterborne diseases in Yakurr Local Government Area, concludes that there is a significant relationship between flooding and 26 Waterborne diseases. This finding is consistent with the research of Okon and Eze (2019), who reported that flood events lead to contamination of drinking water sources, thereby increasing the risk of cholera, typhoid fever, and other waterborne illnesses. Similarly, Adeyemi (2021) highlighted that poor drainage systems and overflow of sewage during floods contribute to the spread of waterborne infections. These studies support the current findings by emphasizing the health risks associated with flooding and the urgent need for improved sanitation measures in flood-prone regions. The result of research hypothesis three, which assesses the relationship between flooding and the aesthetic condition of the environment in Yakurr Local Government Area, concludes that there is a significant relationship between flooding and environmental aesthetics. This finding aligns with the work of Nwankwo and Bello (2017), who found that flooding leads to environmental degradation by washing away topsoil, destroying vegetation, and accumulating debris in residential and commercial areas. Similarly, Johnson (2020) asserted that flood-prone areas often suffer from poor environmental aesthetics due to the accumulation of waste materials and structural damage to buildings. These findings highlight the detrimental effects of flooding on the visual and structural integrity of the environment, reinforcing the need for effective flood management strategies. In summary, the findings of this study indicate that flooding significantly impacts public health and environmental conditions in Yakurr Local Government Area. The relationships established between flooding and the incidence of insect-borne diseases, prevalence of waterborne diseases, and environmental aesthetics underscore the importance of proactive flood mitigation efforts. Future studies should focus on long-term adaptation strategies and the role of community 27 Engagement in reducing the adverse effects of flooding on public health and environmental sustainability. 5.2 Implications of Study The findings of this study have significant implications for public health, environmental management, and urban planning in flood-prone areas. The demonstrated relationship between flooding and the prevalence of insect-borne and waterborne diseases highlights the urgent need for authorities to implement more robust flood prevention measures. Effective drainage systems, improved waste disposal practices, and public awareness campaigns should be prioritized to mitigate the health risks posed by frequent flooding events. The study also suggests that community health programs should incorporate flood-related disease prevention strategies, including vaccination campaigns and vector control initiatives. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of environmental aesthetics in urban planning. Flooding not only deteriorates infrastructure but also reduces the overall quality of life for residents by causing environmental degradation. Policymakers must consider flood-resistant urban designs, afforestation programs, and sustainable land-use practices to minimize the negative impact of flooding on the environment. These implications emphasize the necessity for a collaborative approach involving government agencies, community members, and researchers to create long-term flood resilience strategies. 5.3 Conclusion. Flooding remains a significant challenge in Yakurr Local Government Area, with far-reaching effects on public health and environmental aesthetics. The study has established a clear relationship between flooding and the prevalence of insect- borne and waterborne diseases, as well as the degradation of the environment. The presence of stagnant water bodies post-flooding facilitates the breeding of mosquitoes and other disease-carrying vectors, thereby increasing the burden of diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Similarly, flood-induced contamination of water sources has led to a rise in cases of cholera, typhoid, and other waterborne infections. The study also revealed that flooding negatively impacts the aesthetic condition of the environment by accumulating debris, eroding landscapes, and damaging infrastructure. Poorly managed floodwaters create unsanitary living conditions, reducing the overall appeal of affected communities and impacting the well-being of residents. These findings highlight the urgent need for improved flood control measures and sustainable environmental management practices. In conclusion, proactive flood mitigation strategies must be adopted to minimize the adverse effects of flooding on health and the environment. Government interventions, community participation, and increased research efforts are essential in addressing these challenges effectively. By implementing sustainable flood management policies, Yakurr LGA can enhance public health outcomes and improve environmental conditions for its residents. 5.4 Recommendations At the end of the study, the following recommendations were made; Government: Authorities should invest in flood control infrastructure such as improved drainage systems, flood barriers, and proper waste disposal systems. Regular maintenance of drainage networks should also be prioritized to prevent blockages that contribute to flooding. Residents: Individuals should adopt better waste disposal habits to prevent the clogging of drainage systems. Participation in community sanitation programs and awareness campaigns about flood prevention measures should also be encouraged. Community: Community leaders should take an active role in organizing flood management initiatives, including tree planting and erosion control projects. Local committees should also be established to monitor and address flood-related issues in their neighborhoods. 5.5 Suggestion for further studies Further studies should explore the long-term health impacts of repeated flooding events and evaluate the effectiveness of different flood control measures. Research should also investigate the socio-economic consequences of flooding to provide a holistic understanding of its impact on affected communities REFERENCES Adeoye, N. O., Ayanlade, A., & Babatimehin, O. (2014). Climate change and menace of floods in Nigerian cities: Socioeconomic implications. 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Please read the questions carefully and answer, using a tick to fill the correct answer in the appropriate space or box provided. All your answers shall be treated confidentially and purely used for research purposes only. Thanks. Researcher ABAM DEBORAH IBIANG SECTION A DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 1. Sex (Gender): Female () Male () 2. Age: (Years): 18-22years()23-27years()28-32 () 33 years and above () 3. Educational Qualification: Primary school level () Secondary school level () Tertiary school level () 4. Occupation: Civil servant () Business () Student() Unemployed () SECTION B S/N ITEMS YES NO Does flooding influence the incidence of insect-borne diseases in Yakurr LGA? 6 Do you believe that flooding increases the presence of insects in your area? 7 Have you noticed an increase in insect bites during the rainy/flood season? 8 Do you think that the number of insect-borne diseases (e.g., malaria) rises after a flood? 9 In your opinion, does flooding create more breeding areas for insects that spread diseases? Is there any relationship between flooding and the occurrence of waterborne diseases in Yakurr LGA? 10 Do you think that water sources are more contaminated after a flood? 11 Have you noticed an increase in waterborne diseases (e.g., cholera, typhoid) after flooding? 12 Do you believe that flooding contributes to the spread of waterborne diseases in your area? 13 Have you or anyone you know experienced waterborne illness after a flood event? Is there any relationship between flooding and the aesthetics condition of the environment in Yakurr LGA? 14 Do you think flooding makes the environment look unpleasant? 15 Do you believe that flooding damages the natural beauty of your area? 16 Have you noticed any increase in litter or debris in your surroundings after a flood? 17 In your opinion, does flooding negatively affect public spaces and scenery? APPENDIXES 2 Hypothesis one: Cell 1: (70×66=46.2), Cell 2: (70×34 = 23.8), 100 100 Cell 3: (30×66 = 19.8), Cell 4: (30×34 = 10.2), 100 100 X2 =(55-46.2)2 +(11-19.8)² +(15-23.8)2 +(19-10.2)2 46.2 19.8 23.8 10.2 X² cal 1.67+3.9+3.25 +7.59 X² cal = 16.41 Hypothesis two: Cell 1: (75×30=22.5), Cell 2: (75×70 = 52.5), 100 100 Cell 3: (25×30=7.5), Cell 4: (25×70 = 17.5), 100 100 X²= (15-22.5)2+(15-7.5)2+(60-52.5)²+(10-17.5)2 22.5 7.5 25.5 17.5 35 X² cal2.5 +7.5 +2.2+3.2 X2 cal = 15.4 Hypothesis three: Cell 1: (60×75=45), Cell 2: (60×25 = 15), 100 100 Cell 3: (40×75=30), Cell 4: (40×25 = 10), 100 100 X²= (50-45.)2+(25-30)2+(10-15)²+(15-10)2 45 30 15 10 X² cal = 0.5 +0.8 +1.6+2.5 X2 cal = 5.4 12